| The use of nuclear power is controversial because of | | | | nuclear installations in the United States. The study |
| the problem of storing radioactive waste for | | | | showed no increase in the incidence of childhood |
| indefinite periods, the potential for possibly severe | | | | leukemia mortality in the study of surrounding |
| radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage, | | | | counties after start-up of the nuclear facilities. The |
| and the possibility that its use in some countries could | | | | NCI study, the broadest of its kind ever conducted, |
| lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. | | | | surveyed 900,000 cancer deaths in counties near |
| Proponents believe that these risks are small and can | | | | nuclear facilities. |
| be further reduced by the technology in the new | | | | However, in Britain there are elevated childhood |
| reactors. They further claim that the safety record is | | | | leukemia levels near some industrial facilities, |
| already good when compared to other fossil-fuel | | | | particularly near Sellafield, where children living locally |
| plants, that it releases much less radioactive waste | | | | are ten times more likely to contract the cancer. The |
| than coal power, and that nuclear power is a | | | | reasons for these increases, or clusters, are unclear, |
| sustainable energy source. Critics, including most | | | | but one study of those near Sellafield has ruled out |
| major environmental groups, claim nuclear power is an | | | | any contribution from nuclear sources. |
| uneconomic and potentially dangerous energy source | | | | Apart from anything else, the levels of radiation at |
| with a limited fuel supply, especially compared to | | | | these sites are orders of magnitude too low to |
| renewable energy, and dispute whether the costs | | | | account for the excess incidences reported. One |
| and risks can be reduced through new technology. | | | | explanation is viruses or other infectious agents being |
| Accidents | | | | introduced into a local community by the mass |
| A nuclear accident is generally considered to involve | | | | movement of migrant workers. Likewise, small |
| the release of radioactive material from the vessel | | | | studies have found an increased incidence of |
| and piping containing it. Examples of nuclear accidents | | | | childhood leukemia near some nuclear power plants |
| include the Chernobyl disaster, the Three Mile Island | | | | has also been found in Germany and France . |
| accident, the Windscale fire, and the Mayak accident. | | | | Nonetheless, the results of larger multi-site studies in |
| The Chernobyl disaster was a major accident in 1986 | | | | these countries invalidate the hypothesis of an |
| at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Ukrainian | | | | increased risk of leukemia related to nuclear |
| SSR (now the Ukraine), consisting of an explosion at | | | | discharge. The methodology and very small samples |
| the plant and subsequent radioactive contamination | | | | in the studies finding an increased incidence has been |
| of large portions of land in Europe. It is regarded as | | | | criticized. . Also, one study focusing on Leukemia |
| the worst accident ever in the history of nuclear | | | | clusters in industrial towns in England indicated a link |
| power. A number of workers were fatally irradiated, | | | | to high-capacity electricity lines suggesting that the |
| and the potential death toll among civilians is still | | | | production or distribution of the electricity, rather |
| debated. Operator error and plant design were cited | | | | than the nuclear reaction, may be a factor. |
| as a cause for the meltdown. | | | | Nuclear proliferation |
| The 1979 Three Mile Island accident was the worst | | | | Nuclear proliferation is the spread of nuclear weapons |
| civilian nuclear accident outside the Soviet Union. | | | | and related technology to nations not recognized |
| However, the reactor vessel and containment building | | | | "Nuclear Weapon States" by the Nuclear |
| were not breached, even though the reactor had | | | | Nonproliferation Treaty. Opponents of civilian nuclear |
| suffered a partial core meltdown, so that very little | | | | power point out that nuclear technology may be |
| radiation (well below natural background radiation | | | | dual-use technology, and some of the materials and |
| levels) was released into the environment.[29] There | | | | knowledge used in a civilian nuclear program may be |
| were no immediate fatalities or injuries, and there is | | | | used to develop nuclear weapons. |
| projected to be one additional cancer in the | | | | The military and civil purposes for nuclear energy are |
| population as a result of the accident (again, some | | | | intertwined in most countries with nuclear capabilities. |
| groups debate this). | | | | Original impetus for development of nuclear power |
| Design changes are being pursued to lessen the risks | | | | came from the military nuclear programs, including the |
| of fission reactors; in particular, passively safe plants | | | | early designs of power reactors that were developed |
| (such as the ESBWR) are available to be built and | | | | for nuclear submarines. In many countries nuclear and |
| inherently safe designs are being pursued. Fusion | | | | civilian nuclear programs are linked, at least by |
| reactors which may come to exist in the future | | | | common research projects and through agencies |
| theoretically have very little risk. | | | | such as the US DOE and French CEA. In the U.S., for |
| The World Nuclear Association argues that most | | | | example, the first goal of the Department of Energy |
| major forms of energy production cause deaths. In | | | | is "to advance the national, economic, and energy |
| their comparison, deaths per TWy of electricity | | | | security of the United States; to promote scientific |
| produced are 885 for hydropower, 342 for coal, 85 | | | | and technological innovation in support of that |
| for natural gas, and 8 for nuclear. Air pollution from | | | | mission; and to ensure the environmental cleanup of |
| fossil fuels is argued to cause tens of thousands of | | | | the national nuclear weapons complex."[43] |
| additional deaths each year in the US alone. However, | | | | To prevent weapons proliferation, safeguards on |
| wind power was not included in this study, and is | | | | nuclear technology were published in the Nuclear |
| reputed to have caused no deaths at all. | | | | Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and monitored since |
| Vulnerability of plants to attack | | | | 1968 by the International Atomic Energy Agency |
| Nuclear power plants are generally (although not | | | | (IAEA). Nations signing the treaty are required to |
| always) considered "hard" targets. In the US, plants | | | | report to the IAEA what nuclear materials they hold |
| are surrounded by a double row of tall fences which | | | | and their location. They agree to accept visits by |
| are electronically monitored. The plant grounds are | | | | IAEA auditors and inspectors to verify independently |
| patrolled by a sizeable force of armed guards.[citation | | | | their material reports and physically inspect the |
| needed] The NRC's "Design Basis Threat" criteria for | | | | nuclear materials concerned to confirm physical |
| plants is a secret, and so what size attacking force | | | | inventories of them in exchange for access to |
| the plants are able to protect against is unknown. | | | | nuclear materials and equipment on the global market. |
| However, to Scram a plant takes less than 5 seconds | | | | Several states did not sign the treaty and were able |
| while unimpeded restart takes hours, severely | | | | to use international nuclear technology (often |
| hampering a terrorist force in a goal to release | | | | procured for civilian purposes) to develop nuclear |
| radioactivity. | | | | weapons (India, Pakistan, Israel, and South Africa). Of |
| Attack from the air is a more problematic concern. | | | | those who have signed the treaty and received |
| The most important barrier against the release of | | | | shipments of nuclear paraphernalia, many states have |
| radioactivity in the event of an aircraft strike is the | | | | either claimed to, or been accused of, attempting to |
| containment building and its missile shield. The NRC's | | | | use supposedly civilian nuclear power plants for |
| Chairman has said "Nuclear power plants are | | | | developing weapons. Certain types of reactors may |
| inherently robust structures that our studies show | | | | be more conducive to producing nuclear weapons |
| provide adequate protection in a hypothetical attack | | | | materials than others, such as possible future fast |
| by an airplane. The NRC has also taken actions that | | | | breeder reactors, and a number of international |
| require nuclear power plant operators to be able to | | | | disputes over proliferation have centered on the |
| manage large fires or explosions - no matter what | | | | specific model of reactor being contracted for in a |
| has caused them." | | | | country suspected of nuclear weapon ambitions. |
| In addition, supporters point to large studies carried | | | | There is concern in some countries over North Korea |
| out by NRC and other agencies that tested the | | | | and Iran operating research reactors and fuel |
| robustness of both reactor and waste fuel storage, | | | | enrichment plants, since those countries refuse |
| and found that they should be able to sustain a | | | | adequate IAEA oversight and are believed to be |
| terrorist attack comparable to the September 11 | | | | trying to develop nuclear weapons. North Korea |
| terrorist attacks in the USA. Spent fuel is usually | | | | admits that it is developing nuclear weapons, while |
| housed inside the plant's "protected zone" or a spent | | | | the Iranian government vehemently denies the claims |
| nuclear fuel shipping cask; stealing it for use in a "dirty | | | | against Iran. |
| bomb" is extremely difficult. Exposure to the intense | | | | Some proponents of nuclear power agree that the |
| radiation would almost certainly quickly incapacitate or | | | | risk of nuclear proliferation may be a reason to |
| kill any terrorists who attempt to do so. | | | | prevent nondemocratic developing nations from |
| Nuclear power plants are designed to withstand | | | | gaining any nuclear technology but argue that this is |
| threats deemed credible at the time of licensing. | | | | no reason for democratic developed nations to |
| However, as weapons evolve it cannot be said | | | | abandon their nuclear power plants, especially in the |
| unequivocably that within the 60 year life of a plant it | | | | light of the democratic peace theory, which argues |
| will not become vulnerable. Safety against airplanes | | | | that democracies refrain from war against each |
| became an issue only after the September 11 | | | | other. There is, however, always the risk that |
| attacks. There is no knowing what other methods will | | | | information of new technologies will be stolen and |
| be thought of over the next few hundreds or even | | | | made public (e.g. on the Internet), making it ever |
| thousands of years. The airplane itself is only one | | | | easier for any country to build its own nuclear |
| century old. Also, storage sites may be well | | | | facilities. However, all power sources and technology |
| protected now, but if that remains the case will | | | | can be used to produce and use weapons. The |
| strongly depend on political developments which are | | | | weapons of mass destruction used in chemical |
| impossible to predict. | | | | warfare and biological warfare are not dependent on |
| Other forms of energy production are also vulnerable | | | | nuclear power. Humans could still make war even if all |
| to attack, such as hydroelectric dams and LNG | | | | technology was forbidden. |
| tankers. | | | | Proponents also note that nuclear power, like some |
| Use of waste byproduct as a weapon | | | | other power sources, provides steady energy at a |
| Opponents of nuclear power express concerns that | | | | consistent price without competing for energy |
| nuclear waste is not well protected, and that it can | | | | resources from other countries, something that may |
| be possible be used as a terrorist weapon, as a dirty | | | | contribute to wars.[citation needed] |
| bomb, quoting a 1999 Russian incident where | | | | Concerns about floating nuclear plants |
| workers were caught trying to sell 5 grams of | | | | Russia has begun building the world’s first |
| radioactive material on the open market, or the | | | | floating nuclear power plant. The £100 million |
| incident in 1993 where Russian workers were caught | | | | vessel, the Lomonosov, is the first of seven plants |
| selling 4.5 kilograms of enriched uranium. The UN has | | | | that Moscow says will bring vital energy resources to |
| since called upon world leaders to improve security in | | | | remote Russian regions. |
| order to prevent radioactive material falling into the | | | | Environmental groups and nuclear experts are |
| hands of terrorists. Proponents of nuclear power | | | | concerned that floating nuclear plants will be more |
| argue, however, that a dirty bomb is not a very | | | | vulnerable to accidents and terrorism than land-based |
| effective weapon and would cause relatively few | | | | stations. They point to a history of naval and nuclear |
| casualties, although the psychological impact would be | | | | accidents in Russia and the former Soviet Union, |
| high. | | | | including the Chernobyl disaster of 1986. Russia does |
| Health effect on population near nuclear plants | | | | have 50 years of experience operating a fleet of |
| Most of the human exposure to radiation comes | | | | nuclear powered icebreakers that are also used for |
| from natural background radiation. Most of the | | | | scientific and arctic tourism expeditions. |
| remaining exposure comes from medical procedures. | | | | The Russians have commented that a nuclear reactor |
| Several large studies in the US, Canada, and Europe | | | | that sinks, such as the similar reactor involved in the |
| have found no evidence of any increase in cancer | | | | Kursk explosion, can be raised and probably put back |
| mortality among people living near nuclear facilities. | | | | into operation.[citation needed] |
| For example, in 1990, the National Cancer Institute | | | | At this time it is not known what, if any, containment |
| (NCI) of the National Institutes of Health announced | | | | structure or associated missile shield will be built on |
| that a large-scale study, which evaluated mortality | | | | the ship. The Russians believe that an airliner striking |
| from 16 types of cancer, found no increased | | | | the ship would not destroy the reactor. |
| incidence of cancer mortality for people living near 62 | | | | |