| There are three main approaches to tacking global | | | | Road transport is the largest contributor to net global |
| warming: through policy measures, economic | | | | warming of the human activity sectors examined in a |
| mechanisms and technological changes. These are | | | | recent NASA study, therefore, this should be another |
| obviously interdependent and should be tackled | | | | priority area for mitigation. |
| simultaneously. | | | | Despite all the technological advances in road vehicles |
| The two big policy elephant's in the room are | | | | to improve efficiency, the main factor determining |
| economic growth and population growth which drive | | | | the fuel consumption or carbon emissions per person |
| consumption and the release of greenhouse gases. | | | | carried is still passenger utilisation, or how full the |
| Without subduing these, any attempts at mitigating | | | | vehicle is. A typical car will need to carry |
| global warming through technological means alone will | | | | approximately 20 times the weight and 100 times the |
| be completely undermined. We also need to replace | | | | volume of the driver it carries. Carrying this much |
| the flawed economic mechanisms which have proven | | | | excess weight and space around is an inherently |
| largely ineffective due to the lobbying and corruption | | | | inefficient way of conveying people from one place |
| within corporations. The technological solutions | | | | to another. Similarly, public vehicles can be even more |
| themselves should focus initially on the sectors | | | | under-utilised than cars. This situation will continue until |
| responsible for the greatest net warming over the | | | | a more competitive and convenient method of public |
| short term. This will give us time to reduce | | | | transport is found. |
| greenhouse gases from other sectors which will | | | | Utilisation in vehicles could be improved in two ways, |
| exhibit greater net warming in the longer term. We | | | | by encouraging more people to travel in standard |
| now examine these in more detail. | | | | sized vehicles and reducing the size of vehicle to |
| POLICY ISSUES | | | | meet a typical journey load. |
| 1. Educate children about how to live a sustainable | | | | The first case can be met by developing nationally |
| lifestyle | | | | coordinated car-sharing schemes. Here, car drivers |
| However, the science is just the easy part. We are | | | | are guided to their destination, via small diversions if |
| also inundated with the pressure to consume, which | | | | necessary, to collect and drop off passengers for a |
| makes it even more essential to avoid unsustainable | | | | fee using priority access routes such as bus lanes. |
| thinking habits from an early age. Children should be | | | | This allows drivers to bypass traffic jams in the rush |
| taught that sustainability is not just about buying | | | | hour and reduce their own journey times to make up |
| more energy efficient products, but also designing to | | | | for the lost time in picking up passengers. |
| last, making full use of what we have, eating less, | | | | The second case uses small, narrow width cars with |
| wasting less and recycling more. Above all we need | | | | the provision of a parallel road infrastructure. These |
| to teach that materialistic gain only produces | | | | vehicles might for example carry two people |
| temporary pleasure, and the route to genuine | | | | lengthways, seated back to back in a reclined position |
| happiness lies in a less competitive, more | | | | to minimise weight and air resistance. The parallel |
| co-operative society with strong social ties. | | | | road infrastructure would consist of side lanes and |
| 2. Control population through family planning, welfare | | | | underpasses, enabling drivers to bypass bottlenecks |
| reforms and the empowerment of women | | | | and reduce journey times. |
| The world's population is expected to increase from | | | | 7. Electrify the transport network and power it from |
| 6.8 billion in 2009, to reach 9.15 billion in 2050, with | | | | overnight nuclear electricity |
| most of this growth taking place in the developing | | | | Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) exhibit no emissions |
| world. Urgent measures are needed to limit global | | | | from the vehicles themselves. However, emissions |
| population at levels which can be sustained in the long | | | | can be generated at the power stations that |
| term, since our culture encourages everyone to | | | | produce the electricity to charge their batteries, and |
| strive for the highest material affluence. Unrestrained | | | | the overall greenhouse gases emitted will be |
| population growth is a carbon time bomb, which is | | | | dependent on the energy generating sources used. |
| now only starting to take effect in South East Asia, | | | | Most studies suggest that switching from Internal |
| with South America and Africa soon to follow. The | | | | Combustion (IC) engined vehicles to BEVs would |
| only ethical way we can achieve this potentially vast | | | | reduce carbon emissions, as well as improve local air |
| increase in wealthy consumers are by minimising birth | | | | quality. For cars in the UK, it is estimated that |
| rates. | | | | swapping from fossil fuelled to electric cars would |
| Population growth can be controlled through a | | | | reduce their carbon emissions by more than half, |
| combination of measures. These include free and | | | | even when using the current methods of electric |
| easy access to family planning, welfare provision to | | | | generation. However, further reductions in carbon |
| encourage smaller families, and the empowerment of | | | | could be achieved by generating more electricity |
| women through education and freedom to choose | | | | from non-fossil fuelled sources. For example, any |
| their future. In practice, educated women have less | | | | increase in nuclear capacity would be best directed |
| children due to career commitments and the social | | | | towards powering BEVs, since these can be charged |
| freedom from the early responsibilities of | | | | overnight and during other non-peak periods. |
| motherhood. | | | | Intermittent sources such as wind could also |
| Contraception is almost five times cheaper than | | | | contribute since charging periods could be varied to |
| conventional green technologies as a means of | | | | match the windy periods. |
| combating climate change. Each $7 (£4) spent on | | | | While BEV range is limited without resorting to |
| basic family planning over the next four decades | | | | extortionately expensive batteries, most trips can be |
| would reduce global CO2 emissions by more than a | | | | accommodated using relatively conventional batteries. |
| tonne. To achieve the same result with low-carbon | | | | Car trips in the UK involving journeys less than 80km |
| technologies would cost a minimum of $32 (£19). | | | | in length cover 97% of trips and 75% of total |
| ECONOMIC MECHANISMS | | | | distance travelled. However, for commuter drivers, |
| 3. Encourage reforestation and sustainable land use | | | | trips involving journeys less than 80km in length |
| through a combination of economic restrictions and | | | | cover 98% of trips and 88% of the total distance |
| incentives | | | | travelled. It is therefore suggested that for some |
| 90% of deforestation is caused by unsustainable | | | | categories of motorist at least, a basic BEV would be |
| agricultural practices, while the logging and plantation | | | | a practical and competitively priced proposition, |
| forestry play a greater role in forest degradation. | | | | especially as a second car. For longer journeys other |
| Tropical countries should be paid to reforest net land | | | | alternatives could be made available such as |
| with natural vegetation, verified via satellite imagery | | | | replaceable SWAP modules or a ferrying system |
| and paid via a carbon tax from industry (see item 4). | | | | where cars are charged while being moved on a |
| The price should be set so it is more financially | | | | specialised car transporter. |
| beneficial for countries to reforest and maintain | | | | Electric trucks and buses could also have their range |
| forest habitats than grow crops, biofuels and raise | | | | extended by using an electrified guided trackway, |
| cattle. This system would be far more effective than | | | | built from underused parts of the rail network. |
| present financial instruments such as negotiable caps | | | | 8. Introduce more incentives for improving energy |
| and less susceptible to manipulation since the | | | | efficiency in the housing sector |
| reforestation would be genuinely additional. Higher | | | | Home insulation grants are available in many countries |
| latitude countries could be included in this scheme if | | | | especially for those on social benefits. However, the |
| the combined affect of the carbon absorption and | | | | rate of implementation is very slow, and requires |
| albedo change from forestation reduces net heat | | | | initiative on part of the property owner to act, so |
| gain in these locations. | | | | these measures will inevitably be delayed through |
| Further carbon reductions in our biofuel and food | | | | apathy and inertia. This process could be speeded up |
| chain can be made through changes in our farming | | | | using the following methods. |
| practices, such as using crop rotation, no till | | | | All property owners should qualify for free water |
| agriculture, and appropriate fertiliser use. These | | | | tank, loft and cavity wall insulation and draught |
| practices would also reduce pollution in rivers and | | | | proofing. This should be heavily marketed to those |
| reduce the degradation of the coastal ecosystems | | | | who have not already installed these measures. The |
| that help to absorb carbon. | | | | costs should be borne by a government interest free |
| 4. Introduce a carbon tax and sustainability index for | | | | loan payable on the fuel bill for the property |
| businesses | | | | remaining with any new owner. If the repayment |
| Corporations are fond of publicising their green | | | | period is sufficiently long this should generate a |
| credentials, however, these often consist of isolated | | | | continuous saving. |
| initiatives with only a limited environmental impact on | | | | Less cost effective retrofit measures such as |
| their business as a whole. It remains the norm for | | | | external cladding, internal wall insulation, heat pumps, |
| organisations to use energy inefficient offices and | | | | condensing boilers, thermally efficient glazing panels |
| send their employees to conferences and meetings | | | | and solar heating could be similarly encouraged, by |
| that could easily have been accomplished through | | | | the same mechanism, although a low interest loan |
| teleconferencing. Even some businesses which advise | | | | should be used instead. On the other hand the least |
| on sustainability issues are almost indistinguishable | | | | cost-effective technologies should only qualify for this |
| from their clients in this respect. These companies | | | | incentive if they could demonstrate an economic |
| hardly provide a good example! | | | | payback period without the use of heavy subsidies. |
| To avoid this greenwashing all companies should pay | | | | This might vary from location to location depending |
| a carbon tax. This would allow for the carbon | | | | on the local environmental conditions. |
| released from heating and cooling their buildings and | | | | 9. Match supply and demand from sustainable energy |
| the fuel used during their employees commuting and | | | | generating systems |
| business travel. These figures should be calculable | | | | In a desperate attempt to meet renewable energy |
| from energy and fuel bill receipts, and require only | | | | commitments, certain EU countries have engaged in |
| limited additional administrative effort. The monies | | | | widespread installations of large wind farms. While |
| collected could then be used to fund cost effective | | | | these can make a useful contribution to the |
| carbon mitigation projects such as reforestation, | | | | electricity grid, and can be economically justified if |
| population control and biochar sequestration. | | | | situated in the correct locations, their usefulness is |
| The carbon emitted from each company could also | | | | heavily compromised by their intermittency and |
| be expressed as a sustainability index in terms of the | | | | unpredictability of output. Wind generation requires |
| carbon emitted per employee hour and company | | | | 100% standby capacity from conventional fuelled |
| turnover. This could be prominently displayed on the | | | | generators during calm periods, this renders the |
| corporate literature to ensure each company's true | | | | whole grid system more expensive to operate since |
| commitment and environmental credentials can be | | | | the efficiency of conventional plants are |
| judged with respect to other similar organisations, at | | | | compromised by switching them on and off to meet |
| least in terms of carbon emissions. Government | | | | the variability in supply of the renewable contribution. |
| contracts could also ascribe priority to firms who fall | | | | These problems can be reduced somewhat by |
| within carbon intensity guidelines, although there may | | | | installing a continent-wide high voltage grid which can |
| be other environmental and ethical issues to be | | | | transfer electricity from remote areas where the |
| considered in this choice. | | | | wind is blowing, and using stores of hydro electricity |
| However, this system would not take full account of | | | | and other renewable's when available. However, the |
| the environmental externalities of the products being | | | | disparity between supply and demand will remain |
| purchased for the business; this could be better | | | | problematic unless other initiatives are used. |
| addressed through taxes on imports from countries | | | | One solution would be to use wind generated |
| that do not apply these criteria, and regulating | | | | electricity to power heat pumps for space heating in |
| practices which contribute to waste, such as food | | | | all new build properties, and in particular offices. |
| pricing and packaging. While this accounting procedure | | | | These buildings would be designed to use the thermal |
| is far from perfect, it is far more important that | | | | inertia of the walls, ground and underlying foundations |
| carbon calculations should be kept as explicit and as | | | | as a heat store, so heat is retained during calm |
| simple as possible to avoid 'creative accounting' and | | | | periods when there is only limited wind generation |
| corrupt practices. | | | | capacity. Hence the variable electricity generated |
| TECHNOLOGIES | | | | from wind farms is effectively stored and released |
| 5. Use of biochar stoves for burning biomass | | | | as heat helping to match the disparity between |
| Domestic biomass combustion is the second greatest | | | | supply and demand. |
| contributor to net global warming after transport. | | | | Existing installations with air conditioning could also use |
| This is partially caused by the black carbon emissions | | | | heat pumps powered from electricity, but employ |
| (part of smoke) released from burning this source. | | | | natural gas heating as a contingency during the |
| The atmospheric residence time of black carbon is | | | | calmer spells. It may also be possible to use hybrid |
| only a few weeks, while CO2 emissions resides in the | | | | gas and electric heat pumps to generate combined |
| atmosphere for more than a century, so reducing | | | | heat and power (see a later article on this). These |
| black carbon emissions could quickly reduce climate | | | | initiatives would help to smooth out supply and |
| forcing along with any potential feedback effects. | | | | demand and allow wind farms to be more |
| Therefore, this is probably the most cost effective | | | | economically used. |
| short term mitigation strategy available to us. | | | | 10. Ensure new power plants are carbon capture |
| Biomass is commonly used for cooking in developing | | | | ready |
| countries, often on open stoves producing substantial | | | | The inexorable increase in world demand for energy |
| smoke which can cause health problems, especially if | | | | is disconcerting. China is increasing its electricity |
| used indoors. Between 25 and 35 percent of the | | | | generation capacity by about 14% per year and has |
| worlds black carbon from biomass comes from China | | | | become the worlds largest direct emitter of carbon |
| and India alone. | | | | emissions, partially due to the widespread use of |
| However, there is a smokeless method of burning | | | | high-carbon emitting coal fired powered stations. To |
| biomass which has other benefits as well. If biomass | | | | get this into perspective, Germany's entire electricity |
| is heated without the presence of air, it releases the | | | | capacity of photovoltaics is equivalent to only 0.8% |
| smokeless, combustible gases methane and | | | | of China's increase in electricity generation per year |
| hydrogen, leaving a carbon or charcoal residue. | | | | (based on calculations using data here and here) |
| Specially constructed biochar stoves can use this | | | | To stand any realistic chance of reducing carbon |
| principle for cooking. The remaining biochar or | | | | emissions, it is essential that we develop carbon |
| charcoal left in the stove can be sequestered in the | | | | capture and sequestration technologies for fossil |
| soil to lock away the carbon, or processed into a | | | | fuelled power stations and industry on a large scale. |
| fertiliser. This biochar could be sold on by local | | | | However until we get these into operation, all new |
| communities, paid by a carbon tax on industrial | | | | industrial units should be capable of being retrofitted |
| emissions as described in item 4. | | | | with carbon capture technology and built near |
| Modern biochar production can also be industrialised in | | | | locations where the carbon dioxide can be stored. |
| processes that may produce 3 to 9 times more | | | | Carbon sequestration and capture is neither the most |
| energy than invested. However, it would be essential | | | | popular, cheapest or the fastest acting option |
| to ensure that the biomass was obtained from a | | | | available, but this technology must be developed and |
| sustainable resource and the commodity value is set | | | | installed as quickly as possible to give us at least a |
| at a level so it doesn't encourage deforestation. | | | | chance of controlling carbon from these plants; |
| 6. Utilise vehicles more effectively and allow them to | | | | otherwise the developed world efforts at carbon |
| use a priority access infrastructure | | | | mitigation will be heavily compromised. |